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Resume

Resume of
John J. Lentini, CFI, D-ABC
Scientific Fire Analysis, LLC
32836 Bimini Lane
Big Pine Key, FL 33043
(770) 815-6392 scientific.fire@yahoo.com
Capabilities
He can investigate fire or explosion scenes, locate the point of origin, and chemically determine the
presence of flammable liquids or explosives. He can evaluate the validity of the work of other
investigators through review of reports, testimony, photographs and other data. .He is familiar with
fire and building codes and can determine whether a structure, product, service or installation met
applicable code requirements prior to a fire or other loss. He is also capable of performing all types
of chemical and instrumental analyses, and giving expert testimony as to the results of his
investigations.
Scientific Fire Analysis Responsibilities
President and Principal Investigator. Conducts preliminary evaluations of customer problems.
Conducts, supervises or reviews investigations in the area of fire, arson, explosion, and
asphyxiation, including review of chemistry issues. Prepares and presents expert testimony.
Provides litigation support.
Education
B.A. in the Natural Sciences (Chemistry, Biology, Physics), New College, Sarasota, FL, June 1973.
Postgraduate courses in Chemistry and Criminal Investigation, University of Akron, OH, 1973-74.
Twenty credit hours Graduate Level Chemistry, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, 1979-80.
Training
Short Course in Instrumental Analysis, F.B.I. Academy, Quantico, VA, 1976.
Seminar on Arson and Fraud Investigation, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1979.
Seminar on Gas Fires and Explosions, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1980.
33
rd
, 35
th
, 37
th
, 39
th
, 40
th
, 42
nd
and 59
th
International Association of Arson Investigators Seminars, 1982-91.
Southeast Arson Seminar, University of Georgia, 1979-84, 1996, 2002.
1
st
, 2
nd
and 3
rd
Int’l Symposia on Recent Advances in Arson Analysis and Detection, 1982, 88, 90.
American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS), Annual Meetings, 1988-2010.
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Life Safety Code Seminar, Nashville, TN, 1991.
IAAI Electrical Fire Investigation Seminar, Atlanta, GA 1991.
AAFS Workshop on Contemporary Issues of Fire Investigation and Analysis (Panelist) Seattle, WA, 1995.
FBI International Symposium on the Forensic Aspects of Arson Investigations, Fairfax, VA, 1995.
Georgia Fire Investigators Association (GFIA) Seminar on Appliance Fires, Decatur, GA, 1997.
Workshop on Fire Investigations, Forensic Science Society, Harrogate, England, 1997.
Anglo-American Fire Investigation Conference, Brunel University, Uxbridge, England, 1997.
Forensic Fire Engineering and Failure Analysis, Society of Fire Protection Engineers (SFPE), 1998.
International Fire Investigation Conference, Brunel University, Uxbridge, England, 1999.
Fire Litigation Seminar, National Association of Fire Investigators (NAFI)/NFPA, Sarasota, FL, 2000.
Lightning 101, Global Atmospherics, Inc., Atlanta, GA, 2000.
Technical Working Group on Fire and Explosion Investigations, 2
nd
, 3
rd
and 4
th
Annual Symposia,
Orlando, FL, 2002-2004.
Fire Dynamics Seminar, NFPA Technical Committee on Fire Investigations, Baltimore, MD, 2003.
First International Symposium on Fire Investigation, Fire Service College, Moreton, England, 2004.
10
th
International Fire Science & Engineering Conference (Interflam), Edinburgh, Scotland, 2004.
Introduction to Fire Dynamics Simulator and Smokeview, SFPE, Chicago, IL, 2004.
International Fire Investigation Conference, Brunel University, Uxbridge, England, 2005.
The Scientific Method for Fire and Explosion Investigations, CFI Trainer.net, 2006.
Second International Symposium on Fire Investigation, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati OH, 2006.
Third International Symposium on Fire Investigation, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati OH, 2008.
Introduction to Fire Dynamics and Modeling, CFI Trainer.net, 2008.
A Ventilation-Focused Approach to the Impact of Building Structures and Systems on Fire
Development, CFI Trainer.net, 2009.
Post Flashover Fires, CFI Trainer.net, 2009.
Motive, Means and Opportunity: Determining Responsibility in an Arson Case, CFI Trainer.net, 2010.
Fourth International Symposium on Fire Investigation, University of Maryland, Columbia, MD, 2010.
International Association of Arson Investigators Annual Training Conference, Las Vegas, NV, 2011.
Evidence Examination: What Happens at the Lab?, CFI Trainer.net, 2011.
Understanding Fire Through the Candle Experiments, CFI Trainer.net, 2011.
Professional Certifications and Licensure
He holds certifications from both the International Association of Arson Investigators (IAAI) and
the National Association of Fire Investigators (NAFI). He is also a certified Diplomate of the
American Board of Criminalistics, with a specialty in Fire Debris Analysis.
He holds Florida private investigator’s license number C 2600083. Florida has reciprocal license
agreements with the following states: CA, GA, LA, NC, OK, TN, VA.
Experience
Applied Technical Services, Inc.: 1978-2006
Manager, Fire Investigations. Authored over 3,000 technical reports. Supervised two fire
investigators and an electrical engineer. Served as project manager for major fire investigations.
Conducted site inspections, chemical analyses, designed and conducted physical experiments to re-
create fire scenarios. Provided training, consulting and expert witness testimony.
Metallurgical Engineers of Atlanta: May-December, 1977
Fire scene inspection. Chemical analysis of fire debris. Quantitative chemical and physical analysis
on all types of metal. Radiographic inspection of fittings and welds.
State of Georgia Crime Laboratory: August 1974 - May 1977
Qualitative and quantitative analysis of all types of physical evidence associated with violent and/or
property crimes, and testifying to the results of such analyses. Responding statewide to conduct
field investigations for law enforcement agencies. Conducting air and water quality measurements
for other state and federal agencies. Instruction of law enforcement officers in the collection and
protection of physical evidence.
Courtroom Experience
Since 1975, he has given expert testimony in over two hundred cases in civil and criminal court in
several states and in the Federal Courts. He has testified for both Plaintiffs and Defendants, and has
twice served as a neutral expert hired to advise the court. A schedule of testimony provided since
2000, both in trial and in depositions, is available upon request.
Professional Associations
Member, American Academy of Forensic Sciences President’s Panel on Scientific Integrity, 2009.
Vice Chair, ASTM Committee E30 on Forensic Sciences, elected 1995, re-elected 1997 and 2005.
Chair, ASTM Committee E30 on Forensic Sciences, elected 1999, re-elected 2001 and 2003.
Chair, ASTM Subcommittee E 30.01 on Criminalistics, 1991-1995.
Director, American Board of Criminalistics (ABC), elected 1993, re-elected 1996.
Chair, ABC Proficiency Administration Committee, 1993-1999.
Fellow of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS) 1992-present.
Chair, AAFS Criminalistics Section Nominating Committee, 1999-2007.
Member, Editorial Board, Journal of Forensic Sciences, 2003-present.
Peer Reviewer, Forensic Science International, 2006-present.
Member, National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Technical Committee 921 on Fire
Investigations, 1996-present. (Representing ASTM Committee E30 on Forensic Sciences)
Member, Technical Working Group on Fire and Explosion Investigations, 1997-present.
Planning Panel Member, U. S. Dept. of Justice, NIJ Technical Working Group on Fire
Investigations, 1997-2000.
Peer Reviewer, U. S. Dept. of Justice, NIJ-Office of Science & Technology, 2002, 2007-present.
Member of the National Association of Fire Investigators (NAFI), 1996-present.
Member of the International Association of Arson Investigators (IAAI), 1978-2001, 2008-present.
Member of the Florida Chapter of the IAAI, 2008-present.
Chair, IAAI Forensic Science Committee, 1988-1991.
Member of the Metro Atlanta Fire Investigators Association, 1978-2007. President, 1981.
Member of the American Chemical Society, 1978-present.
Peer Reviewed Publications
“Forensic Science Standards: Where They Come From and How They Are Used, ” Forensic Science
Policy and Management: An International Journal, Vol.1, No. 1, February 2009.
NFPA 921, Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations, NFPA, Quincy, MA, Contributor to the
1995, 1998, 2001, 2004 and 2008 editions
“Persistence of Floor Coating Solvents,” J. Forensic Sciences, Vol. 46, No. 6, November 2001.
“Fire and Arson Scene Evidence: A Guide for Public Safety Personnel,” National Institute of Justice
Office of Justice Programs, USDOJ Publication Number NCJ 181584, Contributor to the
document.
“The Petroleum-Laced Background,”(co-authored with Julia Dolan and Cheryl Cherry),
J. Forensic Sciences, Vol. 45, No. 5, September 2000.
“A Calculated Arson,” The Fire and Arson Investigator, Vol. 49, No. 3, April 1999.
“Differentiation of Asphalt and Smoke Condensates from Liquid Petroleum Distillates Using
GC/MS,” J. Forensic Sciences, Vol. 43, No. 1, January 1998.
“Comparison of the Eluting Efficiency of Carbon Disulfide with Diethyl Ether: The Case for
Laboratory Safety,” (co-authored with Dr. Andrew T. Armstrong), J. Forensic Sciences, Vol. 42,
No. 2, March 1997.
“An Improved Method of Obtaining Ion Profiles From Ignitable Liquid Residue Samples,”
FBI International Symposium on the Forensic Aspects of Arson Investigations, Fairfax, VA,
August 1, 1995.
“ASTM Standards for Forensic Sciences, ” J. Forensic Sciences, Vol. 40, No. 1, January 1995
“Behavior of Glass at Elevated Temperature,” J. Forensic Sciences, Vol. 37, No. 5, September 1992.
“Baseline Characteristics of Residential Structures Which Have Burned to Completion: The
Oakland Experience,” (co-authored with David M. Smith, C.F.I. and Dr. Richard W. Henderson,
C.F.I.), Fire Technology, Vol. 28, No. 3, August 1992.
“Standard Test Method for Flammable or Combustible Liquid Residues in Extracts from Samples
of Fire Debris by Gas Chromatography,” ASTME1387-90. PrincipalAuthoras Task Group Coordinator.
“Guidelines for Laboratories Performing Chemical and Instrumental Analysis of Fire Debris
Samples,” Principal author as Co-Chair of IAAI Forensic Science Committee, June 1988.
Editorial-Reviewed Publications
“Arson probes: Instinct giving way to modern science,” Journal of Insurance Fraud in America,
Vol 2, No. 1, Coalition Against Insurance Fraud, Washington, DC, 2011.
Wiley Encyclopedia of Forensic Science, contributor and section editor for Fire and Explosives
entries, John Wiley & Sons, West Sussex, UK, 2009.
Scientific Protocols for Fire Investigation, CRC Pres, Boca Raton, FL, 2006.
’Progress’ In Fire Investigation: Moving from Witchcraft and Folklore to the Misuse of Models and
the Abuse of Science, ” Proceedings of the 4
th
International Symposium on Fire Investigations
Science and Technology (ISFI), NAFI, Sarasota, FL, 2010.
“Toward a More Scientific Determination: Minimizing Expectation Bias in Fire Investigations,”
Proceedings of the 3
rd
International Symposium on Fire Investigations Science and Technology
(ISFI), NAFI, Sarasota, FL, 2008.
“The Standard of Care in Fire Investigation,” Canadian Association of Fire Investigators Journal,
Spring 2007.
“Report on the Peer Review of the Expert Testimony in the Cases of State of Texas v. Cameron Todd
Willingham and State of Texas v. Ernest Ray Willis,” (Co-authored with Douglas J. Carpenter, Daniel
L. Churchward, David M. Smith and Michael A. McKenzie), Available at www.innocenceproject.org.
“The Mythology of Arson Investigation,” Proceedings of the 2
nd
International Symposium on Fire
Investigations Science and Technology (ISFI), NAFI, Sarasota, FL, 2006.
“What You Don’t Know Can Hurt You: How Do You Know Your Lab Has It Right?” The Fire
and Arson Investigator, Vol. 53, No. 3, April, 2003.
“Forensic Arson Investigation,” McGraw-Hill Yearbook of Science and Technology, 2003.
“Fires, Arsons and Explosions,” Chapter in Modern Scientific Evidence: The Law and Science
of Expert Testimony, edited by Faigman, Kaye, Saks and Sanders, West Publishing Co., St. Paul,
MN, 1997, (Revised 2001, 2007, 2011.)
“Fires, Arsons and Explosions,” Chapter 7 in Science in the Law, Forensic Science Issues, West,
2002. (Essentially a reprint of the 2001 revision in Modern Scientific Evidence)
“Standardization in the Criminalistics Laboratory,” Standardization News, Vol. 23, No. 4, April 1995.
“Unconventional Wisdom: The Lessons of Oakland,” The Fire and Arson Investigator, Vol. 43,
No. 4, June 1993.
“The Lime Street Fire: Another Perspective,” The Fire and Arson Investigator, Vol. 43, No. 1,
Sept. 1992.
“Melted Steel: How Important?” (co-authored with J. Finis McCarver, P.E.), The National Fire
and Arson Report, Vol. 10, No. 4, August 1992.
“The Behavior of Flammable and Combustible Liquids,” (co-authored with Laurel V. Waters),
The Fire and Arson Investigator, Vol. 42, No. 1, September 1991.
“Vapor Pressures, Flash Points, and the Case Against Kerosene Heaters,” Fire Journal, Vol. 83,
No. 4, July 1989.
“Appliance Fires: Determining Responsibility,” (co-authored with R.I. Underwood, P.E.), The
National Fire and Arson Report, Vol. 7, No. 2, April 1989.
Selected Presentations (1996-Present)
Scientific Protocols for Fire Investigation,” Arizona Chapter IAAI, July 13-15, 2011, Prescott, AZ.
Fire and Science,” The Mythology of Arson Investigation,” Sources of Error in Fire Investigation,”
Pennsylvania Association of Arson Investigators, June 6 and 7, 2011, State College, PA.
The Questionable Validity of Fire Origin Determination,” ABA Criminal Justice Section, 2
nd
Annual
Prescription for Criminal Justice Forensics, Fordham University School of Law June 3, 2011,
New York, NY.
’Progress’ In Fire Investigation: Moving from Witchcraft and Folklore to the Misuse of Models and
the Abuse of Science, ” 4
th
International Symposium on Fire Investigations Science and Technology,
September 28, 2010, Columbia, MD.
Rising From the Ashes – What We Have Learned From the Cameron Todd Willingham Case,”
National Institute of Justice (NIJ) Annual Conference, June 16, 2010, Arlington, VA.
Fire Investigation Reviews: How It Looks From The ‘Other’ Side” 61st Annual Training Course,
International Association of Arson Investigators, May 18, 2010, Orlando, FL.
Evaluating Arson Evidence: Avoiding Wrongful Convictions,” Joint Judicial and Senior Manager’s
Spring Conference The Role of the Court in an Age of Developing Science and Technology, May 7,
2010, Washington, D.C.
Post conviction Strategies in Arson Cases,” NACDL’s Litigating Non-DNA Post-Conviction Innocence
Cases Training Program, April 15, 2010, Atlanta, GA.
Fire Investigation in the 21
st
Century: What’s Happening Now? What’s on the Horizon?” Missouri
Public Defenders, April 8 2010, Branson, MO.
Avoiding Wrongful Convictions: Proving the Corpus Delicti,” American Academy of Forensic
Sciences (AAFS), Jurisprudence Section, February 26, 2010, Seattle, WA.
Meeting the Challenge of the NRC Report: Producing Meaningful Mandatory Standards for Forensic
Science,” AAFS, Criminalistics Section, February 24, 2010, Seattle, WA.
Minimizing Expectation Bias in Fire Investigations,” Workshop # 18, AAFS, February 23, 2010,
Seattle, WA.
Fire Investigation in the 21
st
Century,” Workshop # 17, AAFS, February 23, 2010, Seattle, WA.
Fire Investigation in the 21
st
Century,” AOUSC Sixth National Seminar on Forensic Evidence and the
Law, January 7, 2010, San Diego, CA.
Scientific Protocols for Fire Investigation,” Central Texas Fire Investigators Association Training
Course, December 1 and 2, 2009, Shertz, TX.
It’s All About the Science: Defense of a Large Fire Loss,” Property Loss Research Bureau 2009 Large
Loss Conference, November 3, 2009, Tampa FL.
Myths and Misconceptions of Fire Investigation,” “Fire Investigation in the 21
st
Century,” 64
th
Annual
Florida Arson Symposium, October 19, 2009, Orlando, FL.
Forensics Under Fire-Case in Point,” TCCA Actual Innocence Conference, Center for American and
International Law, August 18, 2009, Plano, TX.
Fire Investigation in the 21
st
Century,” Ontario Fire College, May 14, 2009, Gravenhurst, Ontario.
Forensic Science in the 21
st
Century: The National Academy of Sciences Report and Beyond,”
Sandra Day O'Connor College of Law at the University of Arizona, April 4, 2009, Tempe, AZ.
“The State of the Art in Fire Investigation,” Inaugural Lecture Series, Centre for Forensic Science and
Medicine, University of Toronto Medical School, February 27, 2009, Toronto, Ontario.
“Watching Paint Dry, Testing Spontaneous Ignition Hypotheses, ” AAFS Criminalistics Section
February 20, 2009, Denver, CO.
“Forensic Science Standards: Where They Come From and How They Are Used, ”Workshop # 18,
AAFS, February 17, 2009, Denver, CO.
“Toward a More Scientific Determination: Minimizing Expectation Bias in Fire Investigations,”
Canadian National Advanced Fire, Arson and Explosion Investigation Training Program, October 28,
2008, Toronto, Ontario.
“Origin: A Fire Investigator’s Most Important Hypothesis,” Canadian National Advanced Fire, Arson
and Explosion Investigation Training Program, October 28, 2008, Toronto, Ontario.
“Evaluating Arson Cases: Avoiding Wrongful Prosecutions and Convictions,”63
rd
Annual Short Course
for Prosecuting Attorneys, Northwestern University School of Law, July 22, 2008, Chicago, IL.
“Toward a More Scientific Determination: Minimizing Expectation Bias in Fire Investigations,” 3
rd
International Symposium on Fire Investigations Science and Technology, May 20, 2008, Cincinnati, OH.
“The State of the Art in Fire Investigation,” National Academy of Sciences, Committee on Identifying
the Needs of the Forensic Sciences Community, April 23, 2007, Washington, D.C.
“Critical Evaluation of Arson Charges,” California Attorneys for Criminal Justice, California Public
Defenders Association Capital Case Defense Seminar, February 17, 2007, Monterey, CA.
“Distinguishing Fact from Fantasy in Arson Investigations,” Indiana Public Defenders Council,
September 15, 2006, Indianapolis, IN.
“The Mythology of Arson Investigation,” 2
nd
International Symposium on Fire Investigations Science
and Technology, June 27, 2006, Cincinnati, OH.
“Critical Evaluation of Arson Charges,” Third National Seminar on Forensic Evidence and the Criminal
Law, Administrative Office of the U. S. Courts, January 28, 2006, San Antonio, TX.
“Sources of Error in Fire Investigation,” Canadian National Advanced Fire, Arson And Explosion
Investigation Training Program, October 25, 2005, Toronto, Ontario.
“Origin: A Fire Investigator’s Most Important Hypothesis,” Canadian National Advanced Fire,
Arson And Explosion Investigation Training Program, October 24, 2005, Toronto, Ontario.
“Distinguishing Fact from Fantasy in Arson Investigations,” Capital Cases: Third Seminar Series,
Illinois Supreme Court Committee on Capital Cases, September 8, 2005, Springfield, IL.
“NFPA 921, Design and Development,” Live, Learn & Pass It On, Training Conference, Gardiner
Associates, Brunel University, June 29, 2005, Uxbridge, England.
“Distinguishing Fact from Fantasy in Arson Investigations,” Capital Cases: Third Seminar Series,
Illinois Supreme Court Committee on Capital Cases, May 13, 2005, Chicago, IL.
“Laboratory Analysis of Fire Debris: Why It’s Important, How It Works, and How to Evaluate a Lab,”
Insurance Committee for Arson Control, 15th National Training Seminar, February 3, 2004, Sandestin, FL.
“Sources of Error in Fire Investigation,” Technical Working Group on Fire and Explosion Investigations
(TWGFEX), 3
rd
Annual Symposium, University of Central Florida, November 21, 2003, Orlando, FL.
“Fire Debris Analysis: Evolution and Standardization of Techniques,” Technical Working Group on
Fire and Explosion Investigations (TWGFEX), 4
th
Annual Symposium, November 19, 2004, Orlando, FL.
“Evaluating Allegations of Arson,” National Defense Investigators Association, April 6, 2004,
Boston, MA.
“Investigating Fire Scenes,” University of Rhode Island, Forensic Seminar Series, April 2, 2004,
Warwick, RI.
“Misadventures in Fire Investigations: Common Features, Common Errors, and How to Spot a
Dog,” AAFS, Interdisciplinary Session, February 20, 2004, Dallas, TX.
“Where Are the Scientists?” AAFS, Criminalistics Section, February 19, 2004, Dallas, TX.
“Bogus Opinion Evidence:Exposing ItWithoutDNA,”AAFS,Plenary Session,February 18,2004,Dallas,TX.
“Measurement, Certification, Accreditation,” 30
th
Annual FBI Symposium on Crime Laboratory
Development, Sponsored by the FBI Laboratory. September 25, 2002, St. Louis, MO.
“Standards Development for Fire Investigations,” Southeastern Arson Seminar, Sponsored by the Georgia
StateFireMarshaland theGeorgiaFireInvestigatorsAssociation. August8,2001,Brunswick,GA.
“The State of the Art in Laboratory Analysis,” Southeastern Arson Seminar, Sponsored by the Georgia
State Fire Marshal and the Georgia Fire Investigators Association. August 8, 2001, Brunswick, GA.
“Understanding the Opposing Expert,” Southeastern Arson Seminar, Sponsored by the Georgia State Fire
Marshal and the Georgia Fire Investigators Association. August 8, 2001, Brunswick, GA.
“Consensus Standards: A Priority for Forensic Science,” Crime Laboratory Improvement Program (CLIP)
Summit,Sponsored by theU.S.Justice Department. July 14,2000,Washington,D.C.
“Cross-Examining Expert Witnesses,” Institute of Continuing Legal Education, 18
th
Annual Insurance
Law Institute, September 14, 1999, St. Simons Island, GA.
“The Role of Experts in Fire Litigation,” Anglo-American Fire Investigation Conference, Gardiner
Associates, Brunel University, June 30, 1999, Uxbridge, England.
“The Petroleum-Laced Background,” Southern Association of Forensic Scientists Spring Seminar,
April 14, 1999, Decatur, GA.
“The Mythology of Arson Investigation,” 59th Annual Training Course, International Association of
Arson Investigators, April 30, 2008, Denver, CO.
“Sources of Error in Fire Investigation,” AAFS Criminalistics Section, February 21, 2008, Washington, DC.
“Evaluating Arson Cases: Avoiding Wrongful Prosecutions and Convictions,”62
Annual Short Course
for Prosecuting Attorneys, Northwestern University School of Law, July 24, 2007, Chicago, IL.
“Accreditation, Certification and Standardization in the Forensic Sciences,” AAFS Interdisciplinary
Session, February 18, 1999, Orlando, FL.
“The Quality Triangle in the Forensic Sciences: The Role of Standardization, Certification and
Accreditation,” AAFS Criminalistics Section, February 18, 1999, Orlando, FL.
“Low Voltage Leads to High Heat Release,” AAFS Engineering Section, February 13, 1998,
San Francisco, CA.
“A Calculated Arson,” Anglo-American Fire Investigation Conference, Gardiner Associates, Brunel University,
June 15, 1997, Uxbridge, England.
“Misleading Evidence or Misreading Evidence?” Joint Meeting of the Forensic Science Society and the
California Association of Criminalists, June 11, 1997, Harrogate, England.
“Forensic Science Standards: How to Write Them,” AAFS, February 22, 1997, New York, NY.
“Standardization in the Criminalistics Laboratory: The Role of ASTM Committee E 30,”
Eastern Analytical Symposium, November 20, 1996, Somerset, NJ.
“Differentiation of Asphalt and Smoke Condensates from Liquid Petroleum Products Using
GC-MS,”AAFS Criminalistics Section, February 22, 1996, Nashville, TN.
Awards
American Academy of Forensic Sciences, Criminalistics Section Special Meritorious
Service Award, 2008.
Boy Scouts of America Silver Beaver Award, Atlanta Area Council, 2004.
ASTM Award of Merit, 2001.
ASTM E30 Forensic Sciences Award, 1996.